Philosophy of language studies how words, sentences, and speakers connect language to meaning and the world. This cheat sheet helps students compare major theories of reference, meaning, and communication. It is useful for reading arguments about names, descriptions, truth, context, and interpretation.
It also supports clearer writing by showing how philosophers analyze ordinary language carefully.
Core ideas include the difference between sense and reference, the role of definite descriptions, and the way context affects words like I, here, and now. Students should know that some expressions refer to objects, while others express concepts, properties, or actions. Important formulas include reference of a name = the object picked out by that name, and truth condition = the condition under which a sentence is true.
Speech act theory adds that saying something can also be doing something, such as promising, warning, or asking.
Key Facts
- Reference is the relation between a linguistic expression and the object, person, place, or thing it picks out.
- Sense is the way an expression presents its reference, so two expressions can have the same reference but different senses.
- Frege's example is: the Morning Star and the Evening Star both refer to Venus, but they present Venus in different ways.
- A definite description has the form the F and refers successfully only if there is one unique object that fits the description.
- Russell's analysis of the present king of France is that the sentence is false or problematic because no such unique king exists now.
- An indexical such as I, here, today, or now changes reference depending on the speaker, place, date, or time of use.
- A truth condition states when a sentence is true, such as Snow is white is true if and only if snow is white.
- A speech act has three parts: locution = the words said, illocution = the act performed, and perlocution = the effect on the listener.
Vocabulary
- Reference
- Reference is the connection between an expression and the thing it stands for or picks out.
- Sense
- Sense is the mode of presentation or meaning by which an expression identifies its reference.
- Denotation
- Denotation is the object, set, or extension that a word or phrase applies to.
- Definite description
- A definite description is a phrase like the tallest student that aims to identify one unique thing.
- Indexical
- An indexical is a word whose reference depends on context, such as I, you, here, or tomorrow.
- Speech act
- A speech act is an action performed through language, such as asserting, promising, ordering, or apologizing.
Common Mistakes to Avoid
- Confusing sense with reference is wrong because two expressions can refer to the same object while meaning it in different ways.
- Treating every meaningful phrase as referring to a real object is wrong because phrases like the present king of France can have meaning without a real referent.
- Ignoring context for indexicals is wrong because words like I, here, and now cannot be interpreted correctly without knowing the situation of use.
- Assuming a sentence's truth is the same as its usefulness is wrong because truth conditions ask what would make it true, not whether it helps someone.
- Reducing all communication to literal word meaning is wrong because speakers also perform actions such as warning, joking, promising, or requesting.
Practice Questions
- 1 1. In the pair the Morning Star and the Evening Star, identify the shared reference and explain the difference in sense.
- 2 2. For each sentence, count how many indexicals appear: I will meet you here tomorrow. Then name each indexical.
- 3 3. Decide whether the phrase the current president of the United States is a successful definite description in today's context, and explain why uniqueness matters.
- 4 4. A student says, I promise to return the book tomorrow. Explain how this sentence has a literal meaning and also performs a speech act.